Final Thoughts

            Prior to being in this History of Jazz class, I had an entirely different view of how jazz was created, evolved, and spread around the country from the view that I have now. Coming into this class I knew very little about the profound importance that cultural factors had on the formation and development of jazz music. I was under the impression that the class would take an approach focused mostly on the musical aspects of jazz’s creation, like the artists who were key players in the genre and how they were able to create new, unique music that would later be called jazz. While these individual artists and techniques have been vital to my learning of the course’s subject matter, I have been surprised to learn of the many multifaceted forces that led these musicians to begin playing jazz in the first place. I am now aware of the ways that jazz was deeply rooted in the cultures of the cities it passed through and how these cultures shaped jazz just as much as jazz shaped these cultures. This back and forth dialogue between different cultures and jazz musicians is something I never would have thought existed, but over the course of the quarter I have come to a better and better understanding of how the dialogic nature of jazz is crucial to understanding how the genre flourished and became so prominent.

            Upon first hearing Dr. Stewart mention that jazz shares a dialogic relationship with the cultures that it permeates, I was somewhat skeptical and thought little of the claim. However, as the course progressed and we learned about the different eras of jazz and how they transitioned into each other, I began to see the truth in Dr. Stewart’s argument. This dialogic concept first began to click in my mind when we began discussing Chicago Style. We started by talking about the increasing individuality that blacks were enjoying in 1920’s Chicago and how they were allowing themselves to assimilate into American culture and stake out their own place in mass culture by doing so. Soon after, we learned of the rising prominence of the soloist in Chicago jazz music and therefore a rising focus on the individual within this genre (Lecture, 1/29/13). The correlation between the individuality of black culture and the individuality within jazz music seemed obvious to me, and I began to see jazz’s dialogic nature in action.

To cement my belief in this dialogue even further came our discussion of the Swing Era and how jazz moved from swing to bebop in the 1930’s and 1940’s. During the time of swing music in New York, big bands would play in dance halls like the Savoy in Harlem, where audiences would dictate what kind of music was popular based on their responses to bands’ performances. This dialogue between audience and performer led to the highly danceable rhythms of swing music that became characteristic of New York at the time and enthralled a generation of young people who were enamored with the genre and loved dancing to it (Lecture, 2/14/13). The transition from swing music to bebop can also be seen as a result of dialogic forces. With the aforementioned young generation overseas in WWII, there was left an older generation that was not as inclined to enjoy the danceable qualities of swing. Therefore, bebop, with its cool sounds and dissonant melodies, emerged in response to changing interests of jazz’s audience.

Altogether, I have come to find that jazz is much more than I originally believed it to be. Jazz is more than a music genre that randomly sprouted up simply because someone decided to start playing it. Rather, it is a piece of America’s culture, deeply rooted in the development of many cities, from New Orleans to Chicago to New York and beyond. The way that jazz was shaped by these cities is heavily reflected in the way that jazz shaped these cities, which highlights and confirms the profound dialogic nature of jazz mentioned by Dr. Stewart. 

Monk's Community of Modernity

San Juan Hill, the area of New York that Thelonius Monk grew up in, had a widely known reputation for being extremely violent. This area was originally named due to the black veterans of the Spanish American War living there, but also kept this name to represent the violence that ran rampant in its streets which was compared to the vicious scene that Teddy Roosevelt endured at the Battle of San Juan Hill (Kelley, 16). As Kelley says, San Juan Hill was an immense cultural melting pot; although this apparent diversity may seem positive in principle, it was actually the source of the area’s violent outbreaks (18). Intolerance for other racial groups led to recurring fights, and the area was publicly known for its many race riots from 1900 to 1917 that were only perpetuated by the local police (Kelley, 17).

               From the undesirable conditions of San Juan Hill, however, came the genius of Monk’s music. The dissonant melodies put out by Monk in his early career were not particularly popular and held little mainstream appeal originally. However, regardless of the initial popularity of Monk’s music, the unorthodox rhythms and heavily improvised attacks on the piano keys that Monk was known for were just as unorthodox and confusing as the community he was shaped by (Lecture, 2/28/13). The pauses he would take in between riffs and the seemingly random notes that he would strike with great force during his performances can be seen as parallels to the unpredictability one would face living in San Juan Hill, wondering if his or her trip down to the store would be cut short by a fight with someone of a different race.

               With Monk’s obviously unconventional style of music, he was able to break free from the restrictions of his community and in turn create his own community: one that held a profound respect for progress and new ideas (Lecture, 2/28/13). This progressivism endorsed by Monk can be seen not only in his dissonant musical style, but also in the diverse relationships that he upheld in his personal life. For example, Monk received his first formal piano instruction from a Jewish-Austrian man named Simon Wolf. Wolf not only recognized Monk’s genius from the start, but he also broadened Monk’s horizons by introducing him to classical music from composers like Chopin and Beethoven, furthering the multifaceted diversity that Monk would later foster (Kelley, 26). Additionally, Monk’s created community was forward-thinking in that it inspired young people, blacks and whites alike, to rebel against many social norms in America (Lecture, 2/28/13). Perhaps the most prominent of these embedded American sentiments was the issue of race that Monk tried to deal with by transcending the traditional racial politics of the time.

               Rather than allowing his race to define or hinder him, instead Monk chose to separate himself from such notions. This fact is highly impressive given the racism that he endured, not only from the diverse array of neighbors he fought with in San Juan Hill but also from various policemen that held him responsible for crimes he did not commit (Lecture, 2/26/13). In forming his own progressive community as mentioned before, Monk made his music and his life concerned less with race and more with tolerance for changing times. In doing so, he was able to help society make advances in race relations, at least among the community members who were willing to embrace his ideas. Even after all Monk had done to remain tolerant, however, his tolerance was not ultimately reciprocated back to him. His arrest in Delaware in 1958 with his friends Nica and Rouse attests to the unfortunate and horrible state of police discrimination against blacks at this time. Monk, a preacher of community and ignorer of widespread racial issues, was heavily bombarded by an onslaught of unwarranted legal action against him and his friends (Kelley, 254). Perhaps his message of tolerance was not ready to be fully embraced by the society of his time, but his genius lives on regardless.  

Racial Tension in the 1930's

               Since the early history of jazz, this art form and its development have been heavily talked about as being closely associated with issues of race. The Africans brought to America during the times of the Atlantic Slave Trade brought with them many key elements necessary to the creation of jazz, and the genre was widely considered a “black art form” and is still often associated with African American artists even today. Although this link between jazz music and race has always existed, it was not until the 1930’s that greatly tangible racial tensions began to arise in America, making race one of the most important aspects of the genre’s existence at the time.

               This flaring racial tension was built up largely due to the increasing popularity of jazz, which meant that there inevitably would be more and more financial gain possible for artists within this genre. While jazz was still looked down upon by high culture even into the 1930’s, the younger people of the time were becoming enthralled with this music, listening to it in dance halls and sweeping the nation with new dances to accompany it like the Jitterbug and the Charleston (Lecture, 2/14/13). By patronizing these dance halls and creating these styles of dance, young Americans were allowing jazz to assimilate progressively into their popular culture. Due to this rise in popularity, many jazz artists could not afford to be as concerned with the artistic value of their music; rather, they were forced to be concerned with the mass appeal and profitability of their musical endeavors (Lecture, 2/14/13). The impact of the Great Depression during this time only increased the need for a musician’s mainstream appeal as there was little money to go around during this era.

               With jazz becoming a widespread phenomenon with more and more artists involved in it, any given jazz musician had to truly stand out among the crowd in order to be well off financially. This was especially hard for African Americans, as they were not exposed to the same opportunities to play shows as whites were. For example, many big bands comprised of white musicians were able to secure places at concerts more easily than bands made up of blacks. Not only this, but the audiences of many concert and dance halls were racially segregated at the time, further polarizing the power within the genre (Lecture, 2/12/13). This polarization was strengthened even more by the fact that almost all jazz critics in the 1930’s were white (“Swing Changes,” 52). Whites being dominant as jazz critics meant that they were essentially able to dictate what was acceptable within the genre while blacks could say little in return. This imbalance of power contributed greatly to the racial tension brewing in the 1930’s.

                This tension can be further exemplified by looking at the career of Benny Goodman. Goodman advanced jazz in many ways and is remembered today as the “King of Swing.” In 1937, Goodman, a white man, squared off against Chick Webb, a black man, in a “swing battle” at the racially desegregated Savoy in Harlem. Although Webb is believed to have won this battle overall, Goodman is still called the King of Swing to this day, showing the imbalance of racial focus in jazz music at this time (Lecture, 2/14/13). Additionally, Goodman was one of the first to take the radio by storm as this new medium gained prominence in the 30’s. As Gioia puts it, “Goodman sent this apparatus into motion with a vengeance,” (129). This meant that mainstream America was becoming accustomed to jazz music on a large scale that was coming from white musicians, taking away from jazz’s influence as an African American art form. Goodman also advanced jazz by being the first jazz musician to play at Carnegie Hall in 1938. In this performance he also incorporated a few black musicians; this action can be seen as a step towards racial integration within jazz at this time (Lecture, 2/14/13). In other words, Goodman may have been responsible for both an increase and a decrease in racial tensions in the 1930’s. 

1920's Jazz: Chicago vs. New York

      Although Chicago and New York were both integral to the advancement of jazz music in the 1920’s, I would like to argue that Chicago contributed more overall to the progression of this genre. While Harlem was a major hub for jazz, the initial rise of the genre there was met with deep divisions among the social classes of blacks. There existed two Harlems, one where high-brow African Americans lived and originally did not listen to jazz artists and one where “working-class” blacks lived and thrived off of jazz as a major pillar of their culture (Gioia, 90). While this separation of cultures was occurring in Harlem, Chicago was experiencing an intertwining of the many cultures present there. The dialogue between these various cultures and the jazz musicians of Chicago led to the molding of jazz into something more than it had been in New Orleans: jazz with a “Chicago Style.”

       From New Orleans, however, came many influential jazz musicians to Chicago. Artists like Armstrong, Hines, Morton, Oliver, Noone, and Dodds made this migration in the 1920’s. Among their reasons for migrating was the incentive of financial opportunities: in New Orleans, jazz artists typically earned a few dollars per show, while in Chicago they could earn a hefty forty dollars per week (Gioia, 72). Apart from musicians, many others fled to Chicago in search of prosperity. The city experienced a large influx of roughly fifty thousand blacks who came to work in the country’s factories and mills (“King Oliver,” 37). These blacks were met with fierce competition for jobs; however, they all found their common ground by patronizing local jazz musicians after a long day’s work (Lecture, 1/29/13). The promise of a more successful life not only brought the most influential jazz musicians to Chicago, it also brought the audience these musicians needed to flourish.

       With plenty of talented musicians now in Chicago and a vast audience brought before them, a dialogue opened up between these two groups that took the reins of jazz’s formation and infused with it what is called “Chicago Style.” Gioia writes that this evolution was not explicitly noticed or discussed by musicians, but that this change occurred as a result of changing interests of the genre’s audience (73). This dialogue became more apparent as blacks began to let themselves assimilate more and more into American mass culture. As Liz Cohen states, “by participating in mainstream commercial life, which black Chicagoans did more than their ethnic co-workers, blacks came to feel more independent and influential as a race,” (147-148). This newfound individualism could also be seen in Chicago Style jazz. Part of this style was a focus on the individual – the soloist. Perhaps the greatest soloist of this time was Louis Armstrong, whose hot, driving rhythms and advanced syncopations were wholly unrivaled (Gioia, 58). While Harlem may have had exceptional soloists such as stride piano player James P. Johnson, these musicians did not receive the same level of attention that soloists like Armstrong garnered in Chicago, putting Chicago’s jazz above Harlem’s in terms of broad influence.

       While King Oliver and Armstrong may have been among the most talented jazz artists in 1920’s Chicago, I contend that Bix Beiderbecke and the Austin High School Band were among the most influential jazz artists in the city. The recording of “Nobody’s Sweetheart” that Bix did with the Austin High School Band is referred to in “The Chicagoans” as the epitome of Chicago Style (157). As Eddie Condon mentioned, this recording was largely a response to differing interests of Chicago’s musical audience (“The Chicagoans, 156). This song aimed to satisfy all of these interests at once, further proving that there was a dialogue between the audience and performers that molded jazz into its new Chicago Style. Altogether, jazz in Chicago was thriving in the 1920’s, perpetuated by many different musicians, both black and white. 

New Orleans and its Contributions to Early Jazz

New Orleans is considered by many to be the "birthplace of jazz." While jazz is fairly commonplace in modern times, without New Orleans and its complex history it is difficult to say if jazz would have been able to emerge and spread elsewhere. Indeed, New Orleans had just the right combination of elements to lead to the birth and proliferation of jazz music.


To begin with, New Orleans was a city where music was ubiquitous. Many different types of music were  simultaneously present in New Orleans, and without any one of these integral genres, the recipe for the creation of jazz would not have been complete. These highly important music styles were ragtime, blues, and brass band instrumentation. Each one of these components of jazz happened to be present in New Orleans for varying reasons.

Blues, although avoiding mainstream appeal until about 1920, gained popularity in New Orleans before most other areas. This genre is based on a specific three-chord progression that is vital to the sound of the music. This unique tone structure is speculated to have been created when slaves arrived and attempted to merge certain African scales with Western scales (Gioia). Essentially, the syncretism between the music of these two differing cultures led to the creation of blues, a genre that would later be vital to the creation of jazz.

Blues musician

Ragtime was equally necessary for jazz to come into existence. Most ragtime pieces were centered around the pianist, with his left hand keeping a steady rhythm while his right hand scattered around the keys in a syncopated, off-beat fashion (Gioia). This heavy syncopation would later become an easily recognizable staple of jazz music. In fact, the similarities between the rhythms of these genres are so clear that "ragtime" and "jazz" were referred to somewhat interchangeably during the initial rise of jazz music.

Scott Joplin, famous ragtime composer

Lastly, the instrumentation used by brass bands in New Orleans was the last element needed to allow for the birth of jazz. The city had a distinct fondness for brass bands, as they were used as entertainment at various social events. These bands consisted of trombones, basses, tubas, clarinets, horns, and more. As ragtime music grew in popularity, these bands began to employ syncopation in their compositions, further diminishing the lines between these genres (Gioia). The variety of instruments played by these bands would eventually be utilized by and be integral to jazz compositions.

Brass band

Altogether, New Orleans had the perfect combination of musical styles for jazz's creation; it just needed someone to mix these styles together well enough. Gioia accredits this accomplishment to Buddy Bolden, a man that is somewhat mysterious as there are not even any recordings of his work. Regardless of whether or not Bolden was truly the first to mesh together ragtime, blues, and brass instrumentation, the city of New Orleans only had a matter of time before its musical styles were melded by some forward-thinking musician.